Arrays of biological membranes and methods and use thereof

ABSTRACT

The present invention overcomes the problems and disadvantages associated with prior art arrays by providing an array comprising a plurality of biological membrane microspots associated with a surface of a substrate that can be produced, used and stored, not in an aqueous environment, but in an environment exposed to air under ambient or controlled humidities. Preferably, the biological membrane microspots comprise a membrane bound protein. Most preferably, the membrane bound protein is a G-protein coupled receptor, an ion channel, a receptor serine/threonine kinase or a receptor tyrosine kinase.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This Application is a Continuation-in-Part of U.S. Ser. No. 09/854,786,filed May 14, 2001 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,977,155, the content of which isrelied upon and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, andbenefit priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 is hereby claimed.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

DNA microarrays have become an extremely important bioanalytical tool(e.g. for analyzing gene expression); protein microarray technology has,however, lagged behind. The fabrication of protein arrays is challengingbecause of difficulties associated with preserving the foldedconformation of proteins in the immobilized state, and high amounts ofnon-specific binding to immobilized proteins. As a large fraction ofdrug targets are membrane bound proteins (e.g., G-protein coupledreceptors, ion-channels, etc.), there is an impetus to develop tools forhigh-throughput screening against membrane bound proteins. Membraneproteins maintain their folded conformation when associated with lipids;therefore, to create arrays of such proteins it is important to firstdevelop surfaces that support the binding of membranes. Bilayer-lipidmembranes adsorbed onto solid supports, referred to as supportedbilayer-lipid membranes, can mimic the structural and functional role ofbiological membranes. (See Sackmann, E. Science 1996, 271, 43-48; Bieri,C. et al., Nature Biotech, 1999, 17, 1105-1108; Groves, J. T. et al,Science 1997, 275, 651-653; Lang, H. et al., Langmuir 1994, 10, 197-210;Plant, A. L. et al., Langmuir 1999, 15, 5128-5135; and Raguse, B. etal., Langmuir 1998, 14, 648-659.) These hybrid surfaces were developedto overcome the fragility of black lipid membranes while preservingaspects of lateral fluidity observed in native biological membranes.

Surfaces that bind lipid membranes can be broadly classified into threecategories:

-   -   (i) hydrophobic surfaces (e.g. self-assembled monolayers        presenting terminal methyl groups) that support the adsorption        of lipid monolayers; these are of limited utility as they cannot        be used to incorporate membrane-spanning proteins (Plant, A. L.,        Langmuir 1999, 15, 5128-5135);    -   (ii) hydrophilic surfaces (e.g., glass surfaces) that bind        bilayer-lipid membranes; these are also of limited utility as        they can only be used to incorporate membrane-spanning proteins        with extra-membrane domains that are less thick than the layer        of adsorbed water (˜1 nm) (Groves, J. T. et al, Science 1997,        275, 651-653; and Groves, J. T. et al., Langmuir 1998, 14,        3347-3350); and    -   (iii) amphiphilic surfaces that contain hydrophobic and        hydrophilic portions and bind bilayer-lipid membranes; these        offer the potential for incorporating a wide variety of        membrane-spanning proteins (Lang, H. et al., Langmuir 1994, 10,        197-210; Raguse, B. et al., Langmuir 1998, 14, 648-659; and        Vanderah, D. J. et al., Materials Research Society Fall Meeting        Abstracts, Boston, 1999).

Methods to create arrays of membranes would enable high-throughputscreening of multiple targets against multiple drug-candidates. Arraysof membranes may be obtained by fabricating grids of titanium oxide on aglass substrate as titanium oxide resists the adsorption of lipids(Boxer, S. G. et al Science 1997, 275, 651-653; and Boxer, S. G. et al.Langmuir 1998, 14, 3347-3350). Micropipeting techniques have been usedto spatially address each corralled lipid-binding region (Cremer, P. S.et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1999, 121, 8130-8131). However, these methodsare cumbersome and require the fabrication of patterned surfaces. Tomake membrane arrays by printing membranes on unpatterned surfaces, itwould be necessary to confine the membrane to the printed areas withoutlateral diffusion of the membrane molecules to the unprinted areas.Boxer et al. have demonstrated that it is possible to pattern lipids onglass surfaces by microcontact printing using poly-dimethylsiloxane(PDMS) stamps “inked” with phosphatidylcholine (PC). They attributed thelateral confinement of the lipids to the stamped regions, to theself-limiting expansion of PC membranes to ˜106% of the original printedareas (Hovis, J. et al, Langmuir 2000, 16, 894-897). The methods used byBoxer et al., however, have certain limitations. First, Boxer andco-workers carried out the stamping of lipids on surfaces immersed underwater (Hovis 2000). Second, lipids adsorbed on the bare-glass substratesused by Boxer and coworkers spontaneously desorbed when drawn through anair-water interface (Cremer 1999). Cremer et al., propose in WO01/20330the use of spatially addressed lipid bilayer arrays that remainsubmerged underwater to preserve the planar support structure. Suchsystems may not be practical for robust, high throughput, microarraybased assays.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention overcomes the problems and disadvantagesassociated with prior art arrays by providing an array comprising aplurality of biological membrane microspots associated with a surface ofa substrate that can be produced, used and stored, not in an aqueousenvironment, but in an environment exposed to air under ambient orcontrolled humidities. Preferably, the biological membrane microspotscomprise a membrane bound protein. Most preferably, the membrane boundprotein is a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR), a G protein, an ionchannel, a receptor serine/threonine kinase, a receptor guanylatecyclase or a receptor tyrosine kinase.

In embodiments in which the biological membrane microspot comprises aGPCR, the GPCR may be oriented depending on the application of thearray, such that a desired domain, i.e. extracellular or intracellular,faces the solution. For example, orientation of the GPCR with itsextracellular domain facing the solution is preferred for applicationsrelated to screening of ligands. The orientation with the intracellulardomain facing the solution is preferred for functional arrays. Thedesired orientation can be accomplished using substrate surfacemodification techniques discussed in detail below.

In another embodiment, the GPCRs contained within the microspots includemembers of a single or several related subfamily of GPCRs. These arraysare referred to as “family-specific arrays.” Additionally, some GPCRsare found highly expressed in certain tissue types including tumortissue. This information is used to create arrays of GPCRs havingsimilar tissue distribution (tissue-specific arrays) or similarphysiological/pharmacological roles (function-specific arrays).

The substrate for use in the array of the present invention can compriseglass, silicon, metal or polymeric materials. The substrate can beconfigured as a chip, a slide or a microplate.

In certain embodiments, the surface of the substrate is coated.Preferably, the coating is a material that enhances the affinity of thebiological membrane microspot for the substrate. A most preferredcoating material confers a contact angle ranging from about 15° to 80°.

The coating material can be a silane, thiol, or a polymer (biological orsynthetic). Preferably, when the material is a thiol, the substratecomprises a gold-coated surface. Preferably, the thiol compriseshydrophobic and hydrophilic moieties. Most preferably, the thiol is athioalkyl compound.

Preferably, when the coating material is a silane, the substratecomprises glass. Preferably, the silane presents terminal moietiesincluding, for example, hydroxyl, carboxyl, phosphate, sulfonate,isocyanato, glycidoxy, thiol, or amino groups. A most preferred silanecoating material γ-aminopropylsilane. The coating may form a looselypacked polymer layer referred to as a “polymer cushion”.

In an alternative embodiment, the coating material is a derivatizedmonolayer (or several monolayers), multilayer or polylayer havingcovalently bonded linker moieties. Most preferably, the monolayercomprises a thioalkyl compound or a silane compound. Preferably, thesilane- or thiol-derivatized surface can be further modified with one ormore reagents (e.g. cationic polymers such aspoly(diallydimethylammonium chloride, or glutaraldehyde) to enablemembrane immobilization through non-covalent and covalent bondformation.

Preferably, the thioalkyl compound is selected from the group consistingof a thioalkyl acid, thioalkyl alcohol, thioalkyl amine, and halogencontaining thioalkyl compound. Most preferably, the thioalkyl compoundis a thioalkyl acid, for example, 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid.

Preferably, the silane compound is selected from the group consisting ofa silyl anhydride, silyl acid, silyl amine, silyl alcohol, silyl thiol,vinyl silane or silyl acrylate.

The bonded linker moiety can comprises a straight or branched C₁₀-C₂₅alkyl, alkynyl, alkenyl, aryl, araalkyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkynyl,heteroalkenyl, heteroaryl, heteroaraalkyl molecule that in turnincludes:

-   -   (i) a terminal functional group capable of reacting with the        derivatized monolayer;    -   (ii) a hydrophilic spacer region; and    -   (iii) a hydrophobic membrane adhering region.

Preferably, the terminal functional group is selected from the groupconsisting of a carboxylic acid, halogen, amine, thiol, alkene, epoxide,acrylate, anhydride, ester, acid halide, isocyanate, hydrazine,maleimide and hydroxyl group. The hydrophilic spacer region preferablycomprises n-oxyethylene groups, wherein n=2 to 25. The membrane adheringregion preferably comprises a straight or branched chain C₁₀-C₂₅hydrophobic tail.

In another embodiment, the surface of the substrate comprises goldpresenting self-assembled monolayers of alkanethiolates that arederivatized with silanes.

In further alternative embodiments the surface is porous.

The present invention also provides a method for producing an array ofbiological membranes. One preferred method comprises the steps ofproviding a substrate having a surface; providing a solution of abiological membrane (as used herein a “solution of a biologicalmembrane” also includes a suspension of a biological membrane);immersing the tip of a pin into the solution; removing the tip from thesolution to provide a solution adhered to the tip; contacting thesolution with the surface to thereby transfer the solution from the tipto the surface; and repeating the contacting step a plurality of timesto provide biological membrane microspots patterned in an array on thesurface. Typically, the surface of the substrate is exposed to air underambient or controlled humidities when the tip of the pin contacts thesubstrate.

Another preferred method comprises the steps of providing a substratehaving a surface; providing a solution of a purified membrane protein;immersing the tip of a pin into the solution; removing the tip from thesolution to provide a solution adhered to the tip; contacting thesolution with the surface to thereby transfer the solution from the tipto the surface; repeating the contacting step a plurality of times toprovide membrane protein microspots patterned in an array on thesurface; and incubating the membrane protein microspots with a solutioncontaining naturally occurring or synthetic lipids to re-fold theproteins immobilized on surface into their desired conformations.

A variety of other techniques may also be used to produce the array ofbiological membranes of the invention. For example, arrays of thepresent invention can be produced using microstamping (U.S. Pat. No.5,731,152), microcontact printing using PDMS stamps (Hovis 2000),capillary dispensing devices (U.S. Pat. No. 5,807,522) andmicropipetting devices (U.S. Pat. No. 5,601,980).

In a preferred embodiment, the solution comprises a protein. Preferably,the solution comprises a membrane bound protein. Most preferably, themembrane bound protein is a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR), a Gprotein, an ion channel or a receptor tyrosine kinase. In certainembodiments, the protein contains a mutation, e.g. a point mutation. Inother embodiments, the solution comprises multiple proteins.

In an alternative embodiment, the method includes the additional step ofcontacting the microspot with a solution comprising a protein.

The present invention further provides for detecting a binding eventbetween a probe array and target compounds. The method comprisescontacting a solution comprising the target compound with an array ofprobe biological membrane microspots associated with a surface of asubstrate, and detecting a binding event between at least one or more ofthe probe microspots with one or more of the constituents of the target.Preferably, at least one of the constituents of the target is labeledand the detection step comprises detecting the presence of the label.The detection of the label is preferably carried out by imaging based onthe radioactivity, fluorescence, phosphorescence, chemiluminescence, orresonance light scattering emanating from the bound target. Thesubstrate can be washed to remove unbound target prior to the detectionstep.

The GPCRs contained within the biological membrane microspots arefunctional; this functionality can be used to detect a binding eventbetween a probe GPCR and a target compound through the targetcompound-induced activation of the probe GPCR-associated G proteinusing, for example, a labeled nonhydrolyzable GTP as the signal probe.Nonhydrolyzable GTP includes, for example, GTPγS.

In an alternative embodiment, the array of microspots is incubated withlabeled cognate target and an unlabeled target compound, and the bindingevent between the unlabeled target compound and the probe is determinedby measuring a decrease in the signal of the label due to competitionbetween the cognate labeled target and the unlabeled target compound forthe probe. Preferably, the labeled cognate target is incubated with thearray before incubation with the unlabeled target. In other embodiments,the target is unlabeled and the binding event is determined by a changein physical properties at the interface or by mass spectroscopy.Preferably, the change in physical properties at the interface is achange in refractive index or electrical impedance.

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides an immobilizedmembrane comprising a biological membrane associated with a surface of asubstrate coated with an amine terminated compound. The substrate can beor comprise glass, metal or plastic. Preferably, the amine terminatedcompound is a silane. Most preferably, the silane isγ-aminopropylsilane. Alternatively, when the substrate comprises a goldsurface, the amine terminated compound molecule can be11-mercaptoundecylamine. Preferably, the immobilized membrane comprisesa membrane bound protein. Most preferably, the membrane bound protein isa G protein coupled receptor, a receptor tyrosine kinase, an ionchannel, a receptor serine/threonine kinase, or a receptor guanylatecyclase.

Biosensors and diagnostic devices that comprise the arrays of theinvention are also contemplated by the present invention.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The file of this patent contains at least one drawing executed in color.Copies of this patent with color drawing(s) will be provided by thePatent and Trademark Office upon request and payment of the necessaryfee.

FIG. 1 shows a top view of an array of the present invention.

FIGS. 2A and 2B show fluorescence images of 1×5 arrays of microspots ofthe β-adrenergic receptor (subtype 1) incubated with solutions of BT-TMRCGP12177 (5 nM). In FIG. 2A the image corresponds to an array that wasstored for 7 days at 4° C. in a container saturated with water vapor. InFIG. 2B the images correspond to arrays that were stored for 1, 6, and14 days in a desiccator at 4° C.

FIGS. 3A and 3B are fluorescence images of microarrays of the presentinvention. FIG. 3A shows fluorescence images of microarrays of DMPC/DPPC(1:4) lipids doped with FITC-DHPE (2%) on GAPS slides that were subjectto repeated immersions in buffer and withdrawn through an air-waterinterface. (I) Fluorescence image of the lipid array immersed in buffer.(II) Fluorescence image of the array immersed in buffer after beingwithdrawn five times through an air-water interface. (III) Fluorescenceimage of the same array immersed in buffer after being withdrawn fivemore times through an air-water interface. (IV) Fluorescence image ofthe array in air after drying. (V) Fluorescence image of the same arrayunder buffer after reimmersion. FIG. 3B shows fluorescence images ofmicroarrays of egg PC (1:4) lipids doped with FITC-DHPE (2%) on GAPSslides that were subject to repeated immersions in buffer and withdrawnthrough an air-water interface, as described above for (I)-(V). The datawere collected using a ScanArray 5000 scanner. The buffer used was 50 mMsodium phosphate, pH 7.5.

FIGS. 4A-4E show fluorescence images of GPCR arrays, in which each arraycontains three columns and each column consists of five replicatemicrospots. Each column of microspots corresponds to a different GPCR.From left to right, these receptors are the β-adrenergic receptorsubtype 1 (β1), the neurotensin receptor subtype 1 (NTR1), and thedopamine receptor subtype 1 (D1). FIG. 4A shows the fluorescence imageof an array incubated with binding buffer only; this image serves as anegative control. FIG. 4B shows the fluorescence image of a second arrayincubated with a solution of Bodipy-TMR-neurotensin (BT-NT) (2 nM). FIG.4C shows the fluorescence image of an array incubated with a solution ofBT-NT (2 nM) and CGP12177 (1 μM). FIG. 4D shows the fluorescence imageof an array incubated with a solution of BT-NT (2 nM) and SCH23390 (1μM). FIG. 4E shows the fluorescence image of an array incubated with asolution of BT-NT (2 nM) and neurotensin (1 μM). CGP12177 and SCH23390are ligands that are known not to bind to NTR1 receptors; neurotensin isthe cognate ligand for NTR1.

FIGS. 5A and 5B show fluorescence images of arrays of the presentinvention. FIG. 5A shows the fluorescence images of 1×5 arrays ofmicrospots of NTR1 incubated in solutions containing differentconcentrations of BT-neurotensin, as indicated in the figure. FIG. 5Bshows fluorescence images of 1×5 arrays of microspots of the galaninreceptor incubated in solutions containing different concentrations ofcy5-labeled antagonist D, as indicated in the figure. The binding bufferwas 50 mM Tris-HCl, 10 mM MgCl₂, 2 mM EDTA, 0.1% BSA, at pH 7.4.

FIG. 6 shows fluorescence images of NTR1 receptor arrays incubated insolutions containing BT-neurotensin at a fixed concentration (1 nM) andunlabeled neurotensin at different concentrations in the binding buffer.

FIG. 7 shows a plot of the fluorescence intensity of NTR1 receptorarrays in the presence of BT-neurotensin as a function of theconcentration of neurotensin; statistical data are from the exampleillustrated in FIG. 6.

FIGS. 8A and 8B show the dose-dependent binding of Bodipy-TMR-CGP12177(BT-CGP) to human β1 receptor arrays on wheat germ agglutinin (WGA)surfaces in the absence (FIG. 8A) and presence (FIG. 8B) of 10 μMpropranolol, a β-receptor antagonist. In both cases, the fluorescenceintensity of the β1 receptor arrays increases as the concentration ofBT-CGP increases. However, the fluorescence intensities of the β1 arraysin the presence of propranolol are much lower than the correspondingarrays in the absence of propranolol. These results suggest that thebinding of BT-CGP to β1 receptor arrays is specific. The fluorescencebackground on WGA surfaces, due to non-specific binding, is much lowerthan that on CMT-GAPS surfaces.

FIGS. 9A, 9B and 9C illustrate GPCR theme arrays used to differentiatethe selectivity of compounds of interest to receptors relating to asingle subfamily. Multiple arrays of β1, β2 and α2_(A) were fabricatedon an APTES-modified gold surface. Within each array there were threecolumns of five replicates, corresponding to β1, β2 and α2_(A) from theleft to right column, respectively. The array incubated with 5 nM BT-CGPonly was used as positive control (FIG. 9A). The other two arrays wereincubated with 5 nM BT-CGP in the presence of different concentrationsof ICI 11851: 10 nM ICI 118551 (FIG. 9B) and 500 nM ICI 118551 (FIG.9C). It is known that the Ki of ICI 118551 is 120 nM for β1, 1.2 nM forβ2 and over 10 μM for α2_(A).

FIGS. 10A and 10B are chemical representations of the silanemodification of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of alkanethiols ongold. SAMs are reacted with 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APTES) via aone-step (scheme 1—FIG. 10A) or two-step (scheme 2—FIG. 10B) procedure.Alternatively, aminosilanes such as APTES can be electrostaticallyadsorbed onto alkanethiol SAMs.

FIGS. 11A, 11B and 11C illustrate fluorescence images of GPCR arrays.Arrays of human β-adrenergic receptor subtype 1 (β1) were printed onAPTES-modified gold surfaces and incubated with a solution containingBT-CGP 12177. Compared to arrays printed on CMT-GAPS slides, the arrayson gold have ˜4× lower background fluorescence.

FIG. 12 shows the specific inhibition of the binding of labeled ligandto arrays of β1 adrenergic receptors printed on APTES-modified goldsurfaces. The arrays were incubated with solutions containing 5 nMBT-CGP and 20 μM unlabeled inhibitor. The unlabeled inhibitor wasCGP12177, propranolol, or betaxolol. Results are the average of twoexperiments.

FIGS. 13A and 13B illustrate SPR imaging detection of galanin binding toan array of galanin and β1 adrenergic receptors printed on anAPTES-modified gold surface. (A) SPR difference image showing specificbinding of galanin to galanin receptor and no binding to the β1adrenergic receptor. (B) Plot profile showing the binding of galanin tothe first row in the array.

FIGS. 14A, 14B and 14C show fluorescence images and histogram analysisof arrays of the mu and delta 2 receptors (printed on APTES-modifiedgold surfaces) in the presence and absence of dynorphin A. Each arrayhas two columns of three replicates of the mu (left column) and delta 2receptor (right column), respectively. The binding buffer contained 10mM MgCl₂, 100 mM NaCl, 25 nM BODIPY-FL-GTPγS, 0.1% BSA, 3 μM GDP, 50 mMTRIS-HCl, pH 7.4. The incubation time was 90 minutes.

FIGS. 15A, 15B and 15C illustrate chemical modifications of glass ormetal surfaces for the oriented immobilization of GPCRs. (15A) Glasssurfaces may be derivatized with EDTA-silane, which can be treated withsolutions containing nickel ions to form the nickel chelate surface.(15B) The EDTA-silane may be attached to self-assembled monolayers(SAMs) of 11-mercaptoundecanol on gold, or to SAMs of11-mercaptoundecanoic acid (MUA) via NHS/EDC mediated activation. (15C)Instead of EDTA-silane, e-aminonitrilotriacetic acid groups may be usedfor coupling to SAMs of MUA (using NHS/EDC).

FIG. 16A shows fluorescence images of seven separate arrays of theepidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) after incubation with differentconcentrations of tetramethylrhodamine-epidermal growth factor(TMR-EGF). FIG. 16B shows fluorescence images of seven separate arraysof EGFR after incubation with different concentrations of TMR-EGF in thepresence of 500 nM EGF. The EGFR arrays were fabricated on SAMs of11-mercaptoundecylamine on a gold slide using a quill pin printer. Thebinding buffer contained 50 mM HEPES-NaOH, 138 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl,0.2%BSA. The incubation time was 60 minutes. The fluorescence intensityof the EGFR arrays in the absence and presence of EGF as a function ofTMR-EGF concentration is shown in FIG. 16C. The fluorescence intensityof the EGFR arrays due to specific binding is shown in FIG. 16D.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Biological membrane arrays, as well as methods for their preparation anduse, are provided. In the arrays of the present invention, a pluralityof biological membrane probe spots are stably associated with thesurface of a solid support. The arrays of the present invention findparticular use in identification of ligands for membrane bound proteins,such as G-protein coupled receptors. Additionally, the arrays of thepresent invention offer tremendous possibilities for high-throughputscreening of multiple membrane bound targets against multipledrug-candidates, thereby greatly accelerating the process of drugdiscovery. In further describing the subject invention, the arraysthemselves are first discussed, followed by a description of methods fortheir preparation. Next, a review of representative applications inwhich the subject arrays may be employed is provided.

It is to be understood that the invention is not limited to theparticular embodiments of the invention described below, as variationsof the particular embodiments may be made and still fall within thescope of the appended claims. It is also to be understood that theterminology employed is for the purpose of describing particularembodiments, and is not intended to be limiting. Instead, the scope ofthe present invention will be established by the appended claims.

In this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,”“an,” and “the” include plural reference unless the context clearlydictates otherwise. Unless defined otherwise, all technical andscientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonlyunderstood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this inventionbelongs.

Arrays of the Present Invention

As illustrated in FIG. 1, the array (10) of the present inventionincludes a substrate (12) having a surface (14) having a plurality ofbiological membrane probe microspots (16) covering the surface (14).Each probe microspot on the array comprises a biological membrane ofknown or unknown composition and, in preferred embodiments, comprises amembrane bound protein. The microspot may comprise multiple differentproteins. For example, two different proteins involved in a heterodimerpair can be included in one microspot. The probe microspots on the arraymay be any convenient shape, but will typically be circular, elliptoid,oval, annular, or some other analogously curved shape, where the shapemay, in certain embodiments, be a result of the particular methodemployed to produce the array. The density of the all of the microspotson the surface of the substrate, i.e. both probe spots and non-probespots, e.g. calibration spots, control spots, etc., is at least about1/cm² and usually at least about 10/cm² but does not exceed about1000/cm², and in many embodiments does not exceed about 500/cm², wherein certain preferred embodiments, the density does not exceed about400/cm², usually does not exceed about 300/cm², and more usually doesnot exceed about 60/cm². The microspots may be arranged in anyconvenient pattern across or over the surface of the array, such as inrows and columns so as to form a grid, in a circular pattern, and thelike, where generally the pattern of spots will be present in the formof a grid across the surface of the solid support.

In the arrays of the present invention, the microspots are stablyassociated with the surface of a substrate. By “stably associated” ismeant that the microspots maintain their position relative to thesubstrate under binding and/or washing conditions, e.g., the microspotsremain in location and retain biological function when drawn through anair-water interface. As such, the biological membranes which make up thespots can be non-covalently or covalently stably associated with thesubstrate surface. Examples of non-covalent association includenon-specific adsorption, binding based on electrostatic (e.g. ion, ionpair interactions), hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bondinginteractions, surface hydration force and the like, and specific bindingbased on the specific interaction of an immobilized binding partner anda membrane bound protein. Specific binding-induced immobilizationincludes, for example, antibody-antigen interaction, genericligand-receptor binding, lectin-sugar moiety interaction, etc. Examplesof covalent binding include covalent bonds formed between the spotbiological membranes and a functional group present on the surface ofthe substrate, e.g. —NH₂, where the functional group may be naturallyoccurring or present as a member of an introduced coating material. Inanother example, histidine-tagged mutations of GPCRs or membraneproteins can bind to Ni-presenting surfaces through chelating bonds.

Typically, when the biological membrane microspot comprises a membranebound protein, only one type of protein is included in each microspot ofthe array. However, in certain situations more than one type of proteinis included in each microspot. For example, some GPCRs heterodimerizefor their biological functions. (Angers, S. et al., Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA, 2000, 97, 3684-3689.) Additionally, for functional GPCRactivity, the biological membrane microspot may include necessaryco-effectors and/or adaptors. Furthermore, biological membranes fromlysated cells that contain a large number of cell surface molecules canbe directly used to fabricate biological membrane arrays.

In a preferred embodiment of the array, the protein included in themicrospot differs from the protein included on a second microspot of thesame array. In such an embodiment, a plurality of different proteins arepresent on separate microspots of the array. Typically the arraycomprises at least about two different proteins. Preferably, the arraycomprises at least about 10 different proteins. More preferably, thearray comprises at least about 50 different proteins. Even morepreferably, the array comprises at least about 100 different proteins.Alternative preferred arrays comprise more than about 10³ differentproteins or more than about 10⁴ different proteins. The array may evenoptionally comprise more than about 10⁵ different proteins.

In one embodiment of the array, each of the microspots of the arraycomprises a different protein. For instance, an array comprising about100 microspots could comprise about 100 different proteins. Likewise, anarray of about 10,000 microspots could comprise about 10,000 differentproteins. In an alternative embodiment, however, each different proteinis included on more than one separate microspot on the array. Forinstance, each different protein may optionally be present on two to sixdifferent microspots. An array of the invention, therefore, may compriseabout three-thousand microspots, but only comprise about one thousanddifferent proteins since each different protein is present on threedifferent microspots.

In an alternative embodiment, the array is fabricated using cellmembrane preps. Such cell membrane preps contain a large number ofdifferent cell surface proteins in addition to the membrane protein ofinterest. In one example of this embodiment, cell membrane prepsobtained from normal and diseased tissues can be used to form an arrayof the present invention and the resulting array can be used to comparethe pharmacological and physiological characteristics of the tissues.

In another alternative embodiment, each of the microspots of the arraycomprises the same protein of interest but in different amounts, and/orin different embedded environments. For example, the same receptor canbe obtained from lysated cell membrane preps, or from purified receptorre-constituted in liposomes or micelles of different compositions. Theresulting array can be used to examine the effect of the environment onthe stability and functionality of the receptor. In a furtheralternative embodiment, each of the microspots of the array comprisesthe same protein of interest but with different point mutations. Theresulting arrays can be used to systematically examine the structure andfunction relationship of the receptor.

In a further alternative embodiment, the array comprises substantiallyidentical microspots (e.g., microspots comprising the same proteins) ora series of substantially identical microspots that in use are treatedwith a different analyte (target). For example, an array of theinvention can include a “mini array” of 20 microspots, each microspotcontaining a different membrane bound protein, wherein the mini array isrepeated 20 times as part of the larger array.

In another embodiment of the present invention, although the protein ofone microspot is different from that of another, the proteins arerelated. In a preferred embodiment, the two different proteins aremembers of the same protein family. The different proteins on theinvention array may be either functionally related or just suspected ofbeing functionally related. In another embodiment of the invention,however, the function of the immobilized proteins may be unknown. Inthis case, the different proteins on the different microspots of thearray share a similarity in structure or sequence or are simplysuspected of sharing a similarity in structure or sequence.Alternatively, the proteins may be fragments of different members of aprotein family. In a further embodiment of the invention, the proteinsshare similarity in pharmacological and physiological distribution orroles.

Substrate

The substrates of the subject arrays comprise at least one surface onwhich the pattern of probe spots is present, where the surface may besmooth or substantially planar, or have irregularities, such asdepressions or elevations. The surface on which the pattern of spots ispresent may be modified with one or more different layers of compoundsthat serve to modify the properties of the surface in a desirable mannerand will be discussed in more detail below. The surface may also beporous.

The substrate may comprise a ceramic substance, a glass, a metal, acrystalline material, a plastic, a polymer or co-polymer, anycombinations thereof, or a coating of one material on another. Suchsubstrates include for example, but are not limited to, (semi) noblemetals such as gold or silver; glass materials such as soda-lime glass,pyrex glass, vycor glass, quartz glass; metallic or non-metallic oxides;silicon, monoammonium phosphate, and other such crystalline materials;transition metals; plastics or polymers, including dendritic polymers,such as poly(vinyl chloride), poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(methylmethacrylate), poly(vinyl acetate-maleic anhydride),poly(dimethylsiloxane) monomethacrylate, polystyrenes, polypropylene,polyethyleneimine; copolymers such as poly(vinyl acetate-co-maleicanhydride), poly(styrene-co-maleic anhydride), poly(ethylene-co-acrylicacid) or derivatives of these or the like.

The substrate may take a variety of configurations ranging from simpleto complex, depending on the intended use of the array. Thus, thesubstrate could have an overall slide or plate configuration, such as arectangular or disc configuration. A standard microplate configurationcan be used. In many embodiments, the substrate will have a rectangularcross-sectional shape, having a length of from about 10 mm to 200 mm,usually from about 40 to 150 mm and more usually from about 75 to 125 mmand a width of from about 10 mm to 200 mm, usually from about 20 mm to120 mm and more usually from about 25 to 80 mm, and a thickness of fromabout 0.01 mm to 5.0 mm, usually from about 0.1 mm to 2 mm and moreusually from about 0.2 to 1 mm.

Coating material

An array of the present invention may optionally further comprise acoating material on the whole or a portion of the substrate comprisingthe probe microspots. Preferably the coating material enhances theaffinity of the biological membrane microspot for the substrate. Mostpreferably, the coating material confers a contact angle ranging fromabout 15° to 80°.

In one embodiment, the coating material is a silane, thiol, disulfide,or a polymer. Preferably, when the material is a thiol, the substratecomprises a gold-coated surface. Preferably, the thiol compriseshydrophobic and hydrophilic moieties. Most preferably, the thiol is athioalkyl compound.

Preferably, when the coating material is a silane, the substratecomprises glass. Preferably, the silane presents terminal moietiesincluding, for example, hydroxyl, carboxyl, phosphate, glycidoxy,sulfonate, isocyanato, thiol, or amino groups. The coating may form aloosely packed polymer layer referred to as a “polymer cushion”. A mostpreferred silane coating material is γ-aminopropylsilane.γ-aminopropylsilane coated slides (CMT-GAPS™ glass slides) are availablecommercially from Corning Inc.

In an alternative embodiment, the coating material is a derivatizedmonolayer or multilayer having covalently bonded linker moieties. Themonolayer coating, for example, comprising long chain hydrocarbonmoieties, may have for example, but not limited to, thiol (e.g.,thioalkyl), disulfide or silane groups that produce a chemical orphysicochemical bonding to the substrate. The attachment of themonolayer to the substrate may also be achieved by non-covalentinteractions or by covalent reactions.

Preferably, the thiol is a thioalkyl compound and is selected from thegroup consisting of a thioalkyl acid, thioalkyl alcohol, thioalkylamine, and halogen containing thioalkyl compound. Most preferably, thethioalkyl compound is a thioalkyl acid, for example,16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid. Such compounds can be readily synthesizedand/or purchased from commercial sources.

After attachment to the substrate the monolayer has at least onereactive functional group. Examples of reactive functional groups on themonolayer coating are, but not limited to, carboxyl, isocyanate,halogen, amine or hydroxyl groups. In one embodiment, these reactivefunctional groups on the monolayer coating may be activated by standardchemical techniques to corresponding activated functional groups on themonolayer coating (for example, conversion of carboxyl groups toanhydrides or acid halides, etc.). The activated functional groups ofthe monolayer coating on the substrate may be, but not limited to,anhydrides, N-hydroxysuccinimide esters or other common activated estersor acid halides, for covalent coupling to terminal amino groups of thelinker compound. In another embodiment, the activated functional groupson the monolayer coating may be, but not limited to, anhydridederivatives for coupling with a terminal hydroxyl group of the linkercompound; hydrazine derivatives for coupling onto oxidized sugarresidues of the linker compound; or maleimide derivatives for covalentattachment to thiol groups of the linker compound. To produce aderivatized monolayer coating at least one terminal carboxyl group onthe monolayer coating is first activated to an anhydride group and thenreacted with a linker compound.

Alternatively, the reactive functional groups on the monolayer coatingmay be reacted with a linker compound having activated functionalgroups, for example, but not limited to, N-hydroxysuccinimide esters,acid halides, anhydrides, and isocyonates for covalent coupling toreactive amino groups on the monolayer coating.

The linker compound has one terminal functional group, a spacer regionand a membrane adhering region. The terminal functional groups forreacting with the activated functional groups on the activated monolayercoating are for example, but not limited to, halogen, amino, hydroxyl,or thiol groups. Preferably, the terminal functional group is selectedfrom the group consisting of a carboxylic acid, halogen, amine, thiol,alkene, acrylate, anhydride, ester, acid halide, isocyanate, hydrazine,maleimide and hydroxyl group.

The spacer region may consist of, but not limited to, oligo/poly ethers,oligo/poly peptides, oligo/poly amides, oligo/poly amines, oligo/polyesters, oligo/poly saccharides, polyols, multiple charged species or anyother combinations thereof. Examples include, but are not limited to,oligomers of ethylene glycols, peptides, glycerol, ethanolamine, serine,inositol, etc., and are such that membranes freely adhere to themembrane adhering region of the linker moiety. The spacer region may behydrophilic in nature. In one preferred embodiment, the spacer has noxyethylene groups, where n is between 2 and 25. In the most preferredembodiment, the spacer has ten oxyethylene groups. In a preferredembodiment the membrane adhering region or “hydrophobic tail” of thelinker compound is hydrophobic or amphiphilic with straight or branchedchain alkyl, alkynyl, alkenyl, aryl, araalkyl, heteroalkyl,heteroalkynyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroaryl, or heteroaraalkyl. In apreferred embodiment, the membrane adhering region comprises a C₁₀ toC₂₅ straight or branched chain alkyl or heteroalkyl hydrophobic tail. Inthe most preferred embodiment, the hydrophobic tail comprises a C₁₀ toC₂₀ straight or branched chain alkyl fragment.

In another embodiment, the linker compound has a terminal functionalgroup on one end, a spacer, a linker/membrane adhering region and ahydrophilic group on another end. The hydrophilic group at one end ofthe linker compound may be a single group or a straight or branchedchain of multiple hydrophilic groups. For example, but not limited to, asingle hydroxyl group or a chain of multiple ethylene glycol units.

In a further embodiment, the “derivatized monolayer” is a self-assembledmonolayer (SAM) of an alkanethiol modified with a silane. Alkanethiolspreferably include, for example, 11-mercaptoundecanol (MUD),11-mercaptoundecanoic acid (MUA), 11-mercaptoundecylamine (MUAM),16-mercaptohexadecanol, and 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid. Silanespreferably include silanes with different terminal functional groups asspecified earlier, including 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APTES),3-mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane, and 3-isocyanatopropyltriethoxysilane.In this embodiment, the substrate preferably comprises a gold surface.As illustrated in Example 4, the use of a substrate comprising a goldsurface results in enhanced signal to background ratios compared toarrays printed on glass substrates. Additionally, gold is a preferredsubstrate for label-free detection techniques including surface plasmaresonance (SPR), matrix assisted laser desorption conization massspectrometry (MALDI-MS) and electrochemical methods.

Biological Membranes

In accordance with the present invention, a “biological membrane” asreferred to in the present invention comprises a membrane which may besynthetic or naturally occurring, for example, but not limited to,vesicles, liposomes, monolayer lipid membranes, bilayer-lipid membranes,membranes incorporated with receptors, whole or part of cell membranes,or liposomes containing re-folded proteins, or detergent micellescontaining re-folded proteins, or the like. Membranes suitable for usewith the present invention are amphiphilic molecules, for example, butnot limited to, phospholipids, sphingomyelins, cholesterol or theirderivatives. In a preferred embodiment, the membrane includes amembrane-protein. Such membrane proteins include, for example, integralmembrane proteins, peripheral membrane proteins and receptors (e.g., Gprotein-coupled receptors, ion-channel receptors, tyrosine kinase-linkedreceptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, cytokine receptors, and receptorswith intrinsic enzymatic activity). In another embodiment, the membranemay be bilayer-lipid membranes incorporated with, but not limited to,ionophores (for example, but not limited to, valinomycin, nonactin,methyl monesin, coronands, cryptands or their derivatives), ion-channels(for example, but not limited to, protein ionophores, etc.) or syntheticor naturally occurring analytes, for example, but not limited to,antibody, enzyme, lectin, dye, chelating agent and the like.

Moreover, for GPCR arrays, it is preferable, in certain embodiments,that the receptors immobilized are associated with one or more of theircoeffectors such as G-proteins and G protein coupled receptor kinases(GRKs). In a preferred embodiment, cell membrane preps from a cell lineco-overexpressing a desired receptor and its coeffectors are used. Inanother embodiment, a reconstituted receptor in a liposome or micelle isused, in which the receptor is associated with one or more preferredcoeffectors in a preferable ratio. The coupling of the receptor with itscoeffectors can be carried out before or after the receptor is arrayed.The coeffectors can be either purified natural proteins, recombinantproteins with native sequences, or recombinant proteins with uniquecombinations of subunits such as mutants and chimeras.

Proteins

The proteins incorporated on the array may be produced by any of thevariety of means known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Inpreparation for incorporation on the arrays of the present invention,the protein may be obtained from natural sources or optionally beoverexpressed using recombinant DNA methods. Proteins include, forexample, GPCRs (e.g. the aderenergic receptor, angiotensin receptor,cholecystokinin receptor, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, neurotensinreceptor, galanin receptor, dopamine receptor, opioid receptor, erotoninreceptor, somatostatin receptor, etc), G proteins, ion-channels(nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, sodium and potassium channels, etc),receptor tyrosine kinases (e.g. epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor),and other membrane-bound proteins. Mutants or modifications of suchproteins may also be used. For example, some GPCRs possessing single ormultiple point mutations retain biological functionality and may beinvolved in disease. (See, Stadel, et al., Trends in PharmocologicalReview, 1997, 18, 430-437.)

Additionally, the proteins can also (or independently) be modified toinclude an agonist (or peptide) attached at the N-terminus. GPCRsmodified in such a way can be constitutively activated (Nielsen, S. M.et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2000, 97, 10277-10281).

Moreover, for GPCR arrays, it is preferable, in certain embodiments,that the receptors be immobilized in an oriented manner. For example, toimprove performance of GPCR arrays for ligand screening, the GPCRs areoriented with their ligand-binding sites (extracellular domains) to thesolution and intracellular domain facing the substrate. This can beaccomplished by a number of methods. For example, the surface of thesubstrate is modified to contain nitrilotriacetic acid (NAT) groups orethylenediamine triacetic acid (EDTA) groups chelated to nickel. Thissurface can be used for immobilizing recombinant GPCRs with histidinetags at their C-terminus. FIGS. 15A, 15B and 15C illustrate the chemicalmodification of glass or metal surfaces for the oriented immobilizationof GPCRs. Surfaces presenting NTA groups or EDTA groups can beconveniently obtained by silane chemistry on glass or metal oxidesurfaces, or via thiol chemistry on gold-coated surfaces. Compounds forthese surface chemistries are commercially available (e.g.N-[(3-trimethoxysilyl)propyl) propyl] ethylenediamine triacetic acid;Hüls, Inc.).

In an alternative approach for immobilizing GPCRs with theirextracellular domains exposed to solution, anti-G-protein antibodies canbe used. This approach has the advantage that the G-proteins do not haveto be expressed with histidine-tags.

Alternatively, to improve the performance of GPCR arrays for functionalassays, the GPCRs are oriented with their intracellular side facing thesolution and extracellular domains facing the substrate. This can beaccomplished by a number of methods, including, for example, modifyingthe substrate surface with lectins such as wheat germ agglutinin (WGA).These surfaces can be used for immobilization of GPCRs throughglycosylated moieties in the N-terminal of the receptor, or other cellsurface moieties present in the cell membrane.

GPCR Theme Arrays: Selectivity Screening

The selectivity of a potential drug compound to a targeted GPCR versusother GPCRs in the same organ, tissue or even single cell is anextremely important factor to be considered and monitored during drugdevelopment. Currently almost all HTS techniques are related to singletarget screening at one time. GPCR arrays can be used to evaluate theselectivity of multiple compounds of interest to a variety of receptors.In an embodiment of the present invention, the arrays are fabricatedGPCR theme arrays, in which the receptors arrayed on the surface includemembers of a single or several related subfamilies of GPCRs (See Example3).

Some GPCRs and their mutants are related to the development of certaintumors. For example, some mutations of rhodopsin are related toretinitis pigmentosa, while some mutations of vasopressin V2 are relatedto X-linked nephrogenic diabetes (Stadel, J. M. et al., Trends inPharamaco. Sciences 1997, 18, 430-437). Furthermore, some GPCRs arepreferably distributed in certain types of tissues. For example, somereceptors including the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, dopamine 2receptor, histamine 2 receptor, serotonin 4 receptor and prostaglandinreceptor prominently distribute in the gastrointestinal system, whilesome receptors including serotonin 1A/1D and 2A/2C receptor, neurotensin1 and 2 receptors, opioid receptors (mu, delta, kappa, ORL-1), anddopamine 2/3 receptors prominently distribute in the central nervoussystem (Stadel, J. M. et al. TIPS 1997, 18, 430-437). Likewise, somereceptors are associated with known physiological and pharmacologicalfunctions. For example, certain GPCRs for chemokines act as co-factorsfor HIV infection (Feng, Y. et al., Science 1996, 272, 872-876; Deng, H.K. et al. Nature 1996, 381, 661-666). Additionally, some receptorsincluding serotonin 1A, adenosine A 1/2 A and angiotensin receptors playan important role in anxiety and hypertension, while some receptorsincluding opioid receptors, calcitonin gene-related peptide receptorsand neuropeptide FF receptors are related to pain control. Theseproperties can be used to fabricate theme arrays of GPCRs having eitherspecific tissue distribution, or specific roles in physiology andpharmacology.

Preparation of the Arrays

The arrays of the present invention are prepared using micro-patterningtechniques. Such techniques are well known in the art. In a preferredmethod of preparation, the tip of a probe (also referred to as a “pin”)is immersed into a solution of biological membranes. The tip is removedfrom the solution to provide solution adhered to the tip. The solutionis contacted with the surface of a substrate to thereby transfer thesolution from the tip to the surface.

A “pin” as used in the invention may be of any shape, size, anddimension. For example, the pin printing process may involve ring shapedpins, square pins, or point pins, etc. In another embodiment, the directcontact printing may involve single pinprinting or multiple pinprinting, i.e. a single pin printing method involving a source plate ormultiple pin-printing using a laid out array of multiple pins patternedin any format.

The printing apparatus may include a print head, plate, substratehandling unit, XY or XYZ positioning stage, environmental control,instrument control software, sample tracking software, etc. Such anapparatus includes, for example, a quill pin-printer sold by CartesianTechnologies, Inc.

A typographical probe array having a matrix of probes aligned such thateach probe from the matrix fits into a corresponding source well, e.g.,a well from a microtiter plate, is preferably used to form a highdensity array.

A variety of other techniques may also be used to produce the array ofbiological membranes of the present invention. For example, arrays ofthe present invention can be produced using microstamping (U.S. Pat. No.5,731,152), microcontact printing using PDMS stamps (Hovis 2000),capillary dispensing devices (U.S. Pat. No. 5,807,522) andmicropipetting devices (U.S. Pat. No. 5,601,980). For radioactive assaysusing arrays of biological membranes, pippette-based liquid transfertechniques are preferred for fabricating the arrays because suchtechniques can give rise to spots of larger size with a range of severalhundred microns to several mm.

Uses of the Arrays

The present invention also provides for methods of using the biologicalmembrane array. The arrays of the present invention are particularlysuited for use in drug development, medical diagnostics, proteomics andbiosensors. The sample that is delivered to the array is typically afluid.

A wide range of detection methods is applicable to the methods of theinvention. As desired, detection may be either quantitative,semiquantitative, or qualitative. The invention array can be interfacedwith optical detection methods such as absorption in the visible orinfrared range, chemiluminescence, and fluorescence (including lifetime,polarization, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), andfluorescence-resonance energy transfer (FRET)). Furthermore, other modesof detection such as those based on optical waveguides (PCT PublicationWO96/26432 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,677,196), surface plasmon resonance,surface charge sensors, surface force sensors, and MALDI-MS arecompatible with many embodiments of the invention.

The assays used on these arrays may be direct, noncompetitive assays orindirect, competitive assays. In the noncompetitive method, the affinityfor binding sites on the probe is determined directly. In this method,the proteins in the microspots are directly exposed to the analyte (“thetarget”). The analyte may be labeled or unlabeled. If the analyte islabeled, the methods of detection would include fluorescence,luminescence, radioactivity, etc. If the analyte is unlabeled, thedetection of binding would be based on a change in some physicalproperty at the probe surface. This physical property could berefractive index, or electrical impedance. The detection of binding ofunlabeled targets could also be carried out by mass spectroscopy. In thecompetitive method, binding-site occupancy is determined indirectly. Inthis method, the proteins of the array are exposed to a solutioncontaining a cognate labeled ligand for the probe array and an unlabeledtarget. The labeled cognate ligand and the unlabeled target compete forthe binding sites on the probe protein microspots. The affinity of thetarget for the probe microspot relative to the cognate ligand isdetermined by the decrease in the amount of binding of the labeledligand. The detection of binding of the target can also be carried outusing sandwich assays, in which after the initial binding, the array isincubated with a second solution containing molecules such as labeledantibodies that have an affinity for the bound target, and the amount ofbinding of the target is determined based on the amount of binding ofthe labeled antibodies to the probe-target complex. The detection ofbinding of the target can be carried out using a displacement assay inwhich after the initial binding of labeled ligand, the array isincubated with a second solution containing compounds of interest. Thebinding capability and the amount of binding of the target aredetermined based on the decrease in number of the pre-bound labeledligands in the probe arrays.

Another aspect of the invention provides for a method for screening aplurality of proteins for their ability to bind a particular componentof a target sample. This method comprises delivering the sample to anarray of the invention comprising the proteins to be screened anddetecting, either directly or indirectly, for the presence or amount ofthe particular component retained at each microspot. In a preferredembodiment, the method further comprises the intermediate step ofwashing the array to remove any unbound or nonspecifically boundcomponents of the sample from the array before the detection step. Inanother embodiment, the method further comprises the additional step offurther characterizing the particular component retained on at least onemicrospot.

In another embodiment of the invention, a method of assaying forprotein-protein binding interactions is provided which comprises thefollowing steps: first, delivering a sample comprising at least oneprotein to be assayed for binding to the array of the invention; andthen detecting, either directly, or indirectly, for the presence oramount of the protein from the sample that is retained at eachmicrospot.

Another embodiment of the invention provides a method of assaying inparallel for the presence of a plurality of analytes in a sample whichcan react with one or more of the proteins on the array. This methodcomprises delivering the sample to the array and detecting theinteraction of the analyte with the protein at each microspot.

In still another embodiment of the invention, a method of assaying inparallel for the presence of a plurality of analytes in a sample whichcan bind one or more of the proteins on the array comprises deliveringthe fluid sample to the array and detecting, either directly orindirectly, for the presence or amount of analyte retained at eachmicrospot. In a preferred embodiment, the method further comprises thestep of washing the array to remove any unbound or non-specificallybound components of the sample from the array.

The array may be used in a diagnostic manner when the plurality ofanalytes being assayed are indicative of a disease condition or thepresence of a pathogen in an organism. In such embodiments, the samplewhich is delivered to the array will then typically be derived from abody fluid or a cellular extract from the organism.

The array may be used for drug screening when a potential drug candidateis screened directly for its ability to bind or otherwise interact witha plurality of proteins on the array. Alternatively, a plurality ofpotential drug candidates may be screened in parallel for their abilityto bind or otherwise interact with one or more proteins on the array.The drug screening process may optionally involve assaying for theinteraction, such as binding, of at least one analyte or component of asample with one or more proteins on an array, both in the presence andabsence of the potential drug candidate. This allows for the potentialdrug candidate to be tested for its ability to act as an inhibitor ofthe interaction or interactions originally being assayed.

In general, delivery of solutions containing proteins to be bound by theproteins of the array may optionally be preceded, followed, oraccompanied by delivery of a blocking solution. A blocking solutioncontains protein or another moiety which will adhere to sites ofnon-specific binding on the array. For instance, solutions of bovineserum albumin, milk powder, polyglutamic acid, DNA molecules or lectinsmay be used as blocking agents.

Functional Assays in GPCR Microarrays

The arrays of the present invention may be used for microarray-basedheterogeneous assays to identify the activation and co-effectors ofGPCRs. For this use, the assay employs labeled nonhydrolyzable GTP(e.g., radioactive [³⁵S]GTPγS or its fluorescent analogs (e.g.BODIPY-FL-GTPγS)) to monitor the ligand-stimulated binding of GTPγS toarrays of either i) cell membrane preps containing over-expressed GPCRsand G proteins; or ii) reconstituted vesicles/micelles containing thereceptor of interest and its co-effectors. This approach not onlyenables one to screen agonists against GPCRs in a high throughputmanner, but also allows one to identify coeffectors (e.g. coupled Gαprotein) of the GPCR.

Upon agonist binding, a GPCR undergoes conformational changes to uncoverpreviously masked G protein-binding sites, thereby promoting interactionwith heterotrimeric G proteins. This interaction catalyzes guaninenucleotide exchange, resulting in GTP binding to the a subunit of the Gprotein. GTP binding leads to dissociation of the G_(α)-GTP complex fromthe G_(βγ) subunits. As a consequence of the intrinsic GTPase activityof the G_(α) subunit, bound GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP, thereby returningthe system to its heterotrimeric resting state.

GTPγS is a nonhydrolyzable analog of GTP. The binding of bothradioactive and fluorescent GTPγS has been extensively used to measure Gprotein activation by agonist-bound GPCRs in homogeneous, solution-basedassays.

There are diverse groups of G proteins found in tissues and cell types(Morris, C.C. et al.). Gα proteins can be classified into four families(G_(s), G_(i), G_(q) and G_(12/13)) based on their biological functionsand amino acid homology. Moreover, there are at least five G_(β) andseven G_(γ) proteins reported in the literature. The heterotrimeric Gproteins are therefore extremely diverse, taking into account thecomplexity of the combination of three subunits. It is known that a GPCRcouples at least one Gα protein (Morris, C. C. et al.). Furthermore,almost all cell lines preferentially express some rather than all Gαproteins. This raises the complexity of analyzing and normalizing theaction of ligands to a GPCR-G protein pathway. For example, if the GPCRco-effectors are absent in a given cell line that is overexpressing theGPCR of interest, the results of ligand screening assays are invalid.

In the absence of ligand-induced activation of the Gα subunit, GTPγS andits analogs bind to members of the Gα proteins with differentaffinities. For example, BODIPY-FL-GTPγS binds to the unactivated formsof the G proteins G_(o), G_(s), G_(il), and G_(i2)with a K_(d) of 6, 70,150 and 300 nM, respectively, in reconstituted vesicle systems (McEwen,D. P., et al.). This gives rise to different basal lines forfluorescence intensity using BODIPY-FL-GTPγS (or radioactivity counts if[³⁵S] GTPγS is used). However, the agonist-induced Gα activation greatlypromotes the binding of GTPγS.

The present invention provides the following: (1) Use of labeled GTPanalogs to screen compounds as agonists or inhibitors for binding toimmobilized GPCRs (in planar arrays, or microplate arrays); (2)Fabrication of GPCR arrays using specific biological membranescontaining a receptor of interest in the absence and presence ofco-effectors; and (3) Use of GPCR microarrays in combination withfluorescent GTPγS to identify the coupled Gα proteins of a GPCR bymonitoring the basal line and the percent increase in the signal uponligand-induced activation of a GPCR and sequential activation of the Gαsubunit. Membrane preps from cells co-expressing a GPCR with a G₁₆protein (a universal G protein adapter/co-effector), or lipid vesiclesreconstituted with a GPCR and a G₁₆ protein can be in the assays of thepresent invention. Moreover, combinatorial libraries of ligands,generated by phage display techniques, for example, may also be used inthe assays of the present invention.

Alternative assays involving β-arrestin or its mutants can also be usedto identify the receptors in an array which are activated by agonists.It is reported that there is a two-step mechanism involving thedesensitization of GPCRs in living cells (Gurevich et al., 1997; Barak,et al., 1997; Kovoor, et al., 1999). Upon the binding of agonists, thereceptor is activated, and then phosphorylated by a G-protein coupledreceptor kinase (GRK). Arrestin binds to the activated andphosphorylated receptor, thereby blocking the interaction of thereceptor with G proteins. The binding of arrestins to GPCRs requiresboth the activation and phosphorylation of the GPCRs. However, some ofthe arrestin mutants, such as the β-arrestin mutants, Arg169G1u andAsp382Ter, are constitutively active, and are able to bind to certainagonist-activated receptors in a phosphorylation-independent manner(Kovoor et al., 1999). Therefore, the biological function of ligandssuch as natural peptides to the receptors can be measured by monitoringthe binding of arrestin or its mutants in the presence or absence ofG-protein coupled receptor kinases (GRKs). The arrestin and its mutantscan be labeled with isotopes, fluorescence dyes, or biotins. Theunlabeled arrestin and its mutants can also be used and examined bylabel-free detection methods such as surface plasmon resonance. Comparedto the GTPγS binding assay that targets receptor-coupled G proteins, thearrestin binding assay is considered to be more straightforward anddirect.

Microplate-based heterogeneous assays for GPCR-ligand screening

The biological membrane arrays of the present invention can befabricated using microplates. In order to immobilize receptors onmicroplate surfaces such that the receptors retain their biologicalfunctions, at least the bottom surface of the microplate wells aremodified. In certain embodiments it is desirable to modify the surfaceof the whole well. Depending on the modification, the bottom of themicroplate can be either glass, polymer, or gold-based. A number ofdifferent surface chemistries can be used for modification, including,for example:

(1). Silanized surfaces. For example, microplates with glass bottoms canbe modified using vapor or solution-phase deposition of amine-terminalsilanes such as 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane. Microplates coated withgold can be modified using silanization of SAMs of alkanethiolates.Microplates with polystyrene bottoms can be silanized using vapor orsolution-phase deposition after activation of these surfaces with gammarays, or using cross-linking of silanes to these surfaces.

(2). Wheat germ agglutinin (WGA)-coated surfaces. The coating isnormally performed in two steps. The first step involves thesilanization of microplates with isocyanatopropylsilane, or theformation and activation of alkanethiolate SAMs on gold microplates. Thesecond step involves the non-covalent or covalent binding of WGA. TheWGA-coated surfaces can be used for immobilization of GPCRs throughglycosylated moieties in the N-terminal of the receptor.

(3). Antibody-coated surfaces. Anti-GPCR antibodies or anti-G-proteinantibodies can also be attached to the bottom of microplates, and usedfor GPCR immobilization.

To fabricate the microplate arrays of the present invention, smallvolumes of biological membranes containing a GPCR are delivered to themicroplate using, for example, a Cartensian synQuad dispenser. The GPCRmicroplates of the invention can be used in heterogeneous assaysdiscussed above, including competitive binding assays and functionalassays.

In the following, the invention is illustrated by non-limiting exampleswhich describe the invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Materials

Membrane preparations of human β-adrenergic receptor subtype 1 (β1) anddopamine receptor subtype 1 (D1) were purchased from Biosignal Packard(Montréal, Canada). These receptor-associated membranes came suspendedin a buffer solution containing 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4 and 10% glycerol.Human cloned neurotensin receptor subtype 1 (NT1R) andBODIPY-TMR-neurotensin (BT-NT) were purchased from Perkin Elmer LifeScience (Boston, Mass.) and were received as membrane associatedsuspensions in a buffer solution containing 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4) and10% sucrose. BODIPY-TMR-CGP12177 (BT-CGP) and BODIPY-FL-SCH23390 BF-SCH)were purchased from Molecular Probes (Eugene, Oreg.). CGP12177 andSCH23390 were purchased from Tocris Cookson, Inc (Ballwin, Mo.).Neurotensin was purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, Mo.).Coming CMT-GAPS slides were used as received. The fluorescently labeledligands and neurotensin were dissolved in DMSO and stored at −20° C.Before use, the ligand solution was diluted using a binding bufferconsisting of 50 mM Tris-HCl, 2 mM EDTA, 1 mM MgCl₂, pH 7.4 and 0.1%bovine serum albumin (BSA).

1,2-dilauroyl-sn-glycero-2-phosphocholine (DLPC),L-α-dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC),L-α-dipalmitoylphosphatidycholine (DPPC), and egg phosphatidylcholine(egg PC), were purchased from Avanti Polar Lipids (Alabaster, Ala.).FITC-1,2-dihexadecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (FITC-DHPE) andTexas Red-1,2-dihexadecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (TRD-HPE)were purchased from Molecular Probes Inc.

GPCR and Lipid Printing

Multiple arrays of GPCRs or lipids were printed on each slide (CorningCMT-GAPS slides) using a robotic pin printer (Model PS 5000, CartesianTechnologies Inc.) equipped with quill pins (Telechem). Each 3×3 or 5×5element array was separated from its neighboring array by at least 6 mm.Membrane preparations containing GPCRs were used for printing asreceived from the manufacturer without further purification or dilution.After printing the arrays were incubated in a humid chamber at roomtemperature for one hour, and then used for ligand binding experiments.For longer term storage, the arrays were stored in a desiccators at 4°C.

Ligand Binding

Each array on a given slide was incubated for one hour with 10 μL of abuffered solution (50 mM Tris-HCl, 2 mM EDTA, 1 mM MgCl₂, pH 7.4, 0.1%BSA) containing ligand. After incubation, the solutions were carefullyremoved using a pipette tip attached to a vacuum pump. The slides wererinsed briefly with water and dried under a stream of nitrogen. Theslides were imaged in a GenePix 4000A scanner (Axon Instruments, FosterCity, Calif.).

Fluorescence Recovery after Photobleaching (FRAP)

Small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) of1,2-dilauroyl-sn-glycero-2-phosphocholine (DLPC) mixed with 2% (mol %)Texas Red DHPE were generated by sonicating a suspension of the lipids(1 mg/ml) in buffer; these vesicles were then incubated with thesubstrate. After extensive and careful washing, supported lipidmembranes were formed on these surfaces. FRAP experiments were carriedout on these supported lipid membranes on bare glass and GAPS slidesusing an Olympus AX70 epifluorescence microscope equipped with a CCDdetector (Princeton Instruments).

Results and Discussion

Fabrication and Storage of GPCR Arrays

Arrays of GPCRs were fabricated by conventional robotic pin printing,using a quill-pin printer as described in the Experimental Section.Boxer and co-workers have described the importance of transferringmembranes onto the solid-support under water; we were, however,concerned that the lipid solution wetted onto the pin would partiallydissociate from the pin under water and cause cross-contamination duringprinting. Moreover, slide racks in commercially available printers arenot set up for printing under water. The ability to use off-the-shelfprinting equipment for fabricating membrane-protein arrays is animportant step toward the widespread fabrication and development ofthese arrays for bioanalytical applications.

In order to investigate the stability of printed GPCR proteins, arraysof the adrenergic β1 receptor were printed as targets. We firstinvestigated the storage of these arrays under high-humidity at varioustemperatures (room temp to −80° C.). These high-humidity conditions werechosen because there was a significant body of literature that suggestedthe importance of an aqueous environment for maintaining the structureof the membrane-protein complex. (Macbeath G., Schreiber, S. L. Science2000, 289, 1760-1761; Cremer, P. S. Boxer, S. G. J. Phys. Chem. B1999,103, 2554-2559). The functional stability of the arrays wasevaluated in binding assays using fluorescently labeled cognate ligandsand inhibitors using protocols described in Experimental. No ligandbinding to the arrays was observed after storage for a week (FIG. 2A).Therefore, we decided to test the stability of these arrays underdesiccation. We felt that desiccation would reduce possibleprotease-induced degradation. Under the new conditions, the slides withprinted GPCR arrays were air dried at room temp for a couple of hours,put into slide holders under nitrogen, and stored in desiccators at 4°C. in the dark. Our observations indicate that, over a 2-month period,the adrenergic β1 receptors retained their ligand-binding affinity (FIG.2B). These stability experiments are a significant feasibility milestonefor the manufacture of GPCR arrays.

Mechanical Stability of Membrane Arrays on GAPS Substrates

We were interested in the development of robust binding assays formembrane-protein arrays. Boxer and co-workers have reported that lipidsadsorbed onto bare-glass substrates spontaneously desorbed when drawnthrough an air-water interface (Cremer and Boxer, 1999). We felt thatthis behavior was a limitation to the use of membrane-protein arrays forbioassays, which often requires protocols in which the slides arewithdrawn from solution (e.g. during washes by successive immersions).We therefore investigated surfaces that supported the adsorption ofmechanically stable supported membranes; our criterion for stability wasthat the supported membrane would remain adsorbed when withdrawn throughan air-water interface. Among the several surfaces tested, the CMT-GAPSsurfaces offered the most stable supported lipids. FIG. 3A showsfluorescence images of arrays of supported membranes consisting ofDPPC/DMPC doped with fluorescein-DHPE immersed in buffer that werewithdrawn through an air-water interface, immersed in water, dried, andagain immersed under water. We did not see any decrease in thefluorescence intensities of these lipid microspots through thesesuccessive immersions and withdrawals; these observations indicate thatthe bound lipids are stable. FIG. 3B shows data on lipids consisting ofegg PC; arrays of these lipids are also stable when subject tosuccessive immersions and withdrawals. At room temperature, DMPC/DPPClipids are in the gel-phase, whereas egg-PC is in the fluid phase. Theseexperiments demonstrate that supported lipid arrays are mechanicallyrobust on GAPS-coated substrates, independent of whether they are in thegel or fluid phase.

We were also interested in determining whether the lipids adsorbed onGAPS substrates had long-range lateral fluidity. This fluidity is animportant characteristic of native biological membranes, and is aproperty that is considered to be physiologically significant (e.g. forprocesses such as ligand induced receptor dimerization at surfaces,and/or Logan-induced receptor-G protein interactions). Although it isnot clear whether this fluidity is required for ligand screeningexperiments on supported biological membranes, we nevertheless wanted toinvestigate whether the high mechanical stability of the supportedlipids described above necessarily implied that the lipids were notlaterally mobile. We made vesicles from fluorescently labeled DLPClipids and formed supported lipids on the GAPS substrates by vesiclefusion. Using a fluorescence microscope, we observed the fluorescencerecovery of a photobleached spot on the supported lipid in a FRAPexperiment. A comparative experiment with DLPC vesicles on bare-glasssuggested that the recovery was much slower on the GAPS substrate. Theseexperiments suggest there is some lateral fluidity associated with thesupported lipids on the GAPS substrates. Our observations on the GAPSsubstrates are in agreement with the lower and limited mobility ofsupported membranes on polymer cushions reported by Shen et al (WilliamW Shen, Steven G. Boxer, Wolfgang Knoll, Curtis W. Frank;Biomacromolecules 2001, vol 2, pp 70-79).

Biospecific Binding to GPCR Arrays

Arrays of GPCRs were fabricated by using a quill-pin printer, asdescribed above. The arrays were then incubated with their fluorescentlylabeled cognate ligands in direct or competition assays. FIG. 4 showsfluorescence false-color images of five separate arrays printed on asingle CMT-GAPS slide; each individual array contains three columnscontaining 5 replicate spots; each column represents a different GPCRprotein. These proteins, from left to right, are the adrenergic receptor(β1), the neurotensin receptor (NTR1) and the dopamine (D1) receptor,respectively. The first array (FIG. 4A) was incubated with the bindingbuffer only. As expected, no fluorescence is observed. The second array(FIG. 4B) was incubated with a solution containing fluorescently labeledneurotensin (BT-NT, 2 nM). The image shows that only the arraycorresponding to NTR1 shows a strong fluorescence signal; thisobservation suggests that the binding of BT-NT to NTR1 is selective. Thespecificity of the interaction was further demonstrated by incubatingthe arrays with solutions containing BT-NT (2 nM) and either CGP12177 (1μM) (FIG. 4C), SCH 23390 (1μM) (FIG. 4D), or neurotensin (1 μM) (FIG.4E). Relative to FIG. 4B, there is no significant decrease in theintensities of spots corresponding to NTR1 in FIGS. 4C and 4D. CGP 12177and SCH 23390 do not bind to NTR1; hence, their addition to the bindingsolution should not inhibit the interaction of BT-NT with NTR1, inagreement with our observations. Neurotensin is the cognate ligand forNTR1, hence, it competes for binding sites on the NTR1 array. In FIG.4E, the array was incubated with a solution that contained neurotensinin 500-fold excess over BT-NT; at these ratios, the neurotensin isexpected to completely inhibit the binding of BT-NT to NTR1. We do notobserve any signal corresponding to the NTR1 array; hence, neurotensinis able to specifically inhibit binding to NTR1. These experimentsdemonstrate that assays to test the binding of ligands and inhibitorsare feasible using GPCR arrays.

Dose Dependent Binding

We have investigated the response of the printed GPCR arrays to cognateligands at different concentrations. FIG. 5A shows fluorescence imagesof arrays of the neurotensin receptor treated with BT-NT; the data showsthat there is an increase in the fluorescence intensity of the arrayswhen treated with higher concentrations of fluorescently labeled ligand.For the binding of BT-NT to NTR1 arrays, the limit of detection was˜0.1-0.2 nM BT-NT. These results suggest that the dynamic range of GPCRarrays utilizing fluorescently labeled ligands is ˜2 logs for thissystem. FIG. 5B shows data for the binding of cy5-labeled antagonist Dto arrays of the galanin receptor; the images show that the fluorescenceintensity of the microspots is dependent on the concentration of theligand.

The inhibition of binding of the fluorescent ligands to the array isdependent on the relative concentrations of the inhibitor and thelabeled ligands, and their respective dissociation (K_(d)). FIG. 6 showsfluorescence images of NTR1 arrays incubated with solutions containingBT-NT (1 nM) and different concentrations of neurotensin (0-250 nM). Thedata show that there is a decrease in the fluorescence as theconcentration of neurotensin is increased. A plot of the fluorescenceintensities versus concentration is shown in FIG. 7; based on this plot,we estimate that the inhibition constant (K_(i)) is ˜2.5 nM. This valueis consistent with the reported value of K_(i) (2 nM) for neurotensinobtained from fluorescence polarization experiments. These experimentsdemonstrate that it is possible to obtain estimates of binding constantsof ligands and inhibitors using GPCR arrays.

Example 2

Wheat Germ Agglutinin Surface Modification

Glass slides (Corning) were cleaned prior to use by soaking for 30minutes in piranha etch (7:3 concentrated sulfuric acid: 30% hydrogenperoxide) followed by rinsing with distilled water. The glass slideswere soaked in an ethanol solution containing 5%3-isocyanatopropyltriethoxysilane for an hour, and then rinsed withethanol and water, and finally dried with a flow of nitrogen. Thesilanized slides were used immediately for wheat germ agglutinin (WGA)coupling. The coupling was performed by soaking the slides in a solutioncontaining 0.1 mg/ml WGA in 100 mM NaCl, 10 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.5,followed by rinsing with water and drying. Human β-adrenergic receptorsubtype 1 (β1) was purchased from Biosignal (Montreal, Canada). Thereceptor associated membranes were originally suspended in 10 mMTris-HCl, 5 mM MgCl₂ and 10% glycerol, pH7.4, and used directly forprinting without further treatment. Eight separate grids of the β1receptor were printed on a single WGA surface using a quill pin printer(Model PS5000m Cartesian Technologies Inc.). One hour after printing,each grid was incubated with a different solution that contained varyingconcentrations of BODIPY-TMR-CGP 12177 in the absence and presence of 10μM propranolol. After incubation for 60 minutes the slides were rinsed,dried and imaged in the Cy3 channel of a GenePix scanner. The resultsare illustrated in FIGS. 8A and 8B.

Example 3

Family-Specific Arrays

Three receptors belonging to the same family, adrenergic receptors, werearrayed within a single grid, and replicates of this grid were arrayedon a single slide. The receptors were β1, β2 and α2A, respectively. Ithas been reported that CGP12177 is a β1/β2 antagonist, and a β3 partialagonist. Arrays were incubated with 5 nM BODIPY-TMR-CGP12177 in theabsence and presence of varying concentrations of ICI118551. Asillustrated in FIGS. 9A, 9B and 9C, only those spots corresponding tothe β1 and β2 receptors light up. In the presence of 10 nM ICI118551 (aselective β2 agonist), the fluorescence intensity of the β2 receptorsdecreases, while the intensity of the β1 receptors remains almost at thesame level. However, as the concentration of ICI118551 increases to 500nM, the fluorescence intensity of β1 dramatically decreases, while theintensity of β2 is similar to the intensity observed in the presence of10 nM ICI118551 These results illustrate that ICI118551 can compete withBODIPY -TMR-CGP12177 binding to both β1 and β2 receptors but with higheraffinity to β2, and that the GPCR theme array can be used todifferentiate the selectivity of ICI118551 over β1 and β2 receptors.

Example 4

Aminosilanized SAMs of Alkanethiolates on Gold for Immobilization ofGPCRs

Experimental Details

Preparation of Surfaces

Gold-coated microscope slides (10 nM Cr adhesion layer, 100 nm Au) werepurchased from Evaporated Metal Films and were cleaned prior to use bysoaking for 30 seconds in piranha etch (7:3 concentrated sulfuric acid:30% hydrogen peroxide) followed by thorough rinsing with distilledwater. SAMs of 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid (MUA) or 11-mercaptoundecanol(MUD) were formed by soaking the gold slides in a 1 mM ethanolicsolution of the thiol for at least 1 hour. The carboxylic acid groups ofthe MUA SAMs were converted to active esters by reacting the sample for30 minutes in a solution containing 75 mM1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC) and 15 mMN-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) in distilled water. This activation step wasfound to be not necessary, but preferred, for the coupling ofamino-terminated silanes. Silanization of SAMs of MUD and NHS-estermodified MUA was accomplished by soaking the slides for one hour in a 5%(v/v) solution of 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) in toluene. Thesamples were then soaked for five minutes in toluene, rinsed withethanol, and dried.

GPCR Array Fabrication

Arrays of GPCRs were printed on APTES silanized gold surfaces using aCartesian printer equipped with a quill pin (Telechem). Membranepreparations of human β-adrenergic receptor subtype 1 (β1) werepurchased from Biosignal Packard (Montreal, Canada). Thesereceptor-associated membranes come suspended in a buffer solutioncontaining 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4 and 10% glycerol and were useddirectly for printing. After printing, the arrays were incubated with a10 μl solution containing 5 nM BODIPY -tetratmethylrhodamine (BT)labeled CGP 12177 in the absence and presence of 20 μM unlabeled CGP12177, propranolol, or betaxolol. These reactions were performed in abinding buffer containing 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 10 mM MgCl₂, and 0.1%BSA.

Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging

Substrates for SPR imaging were prepared by thermal evaporation of a 1nM Cr adhesion layer and 45 nm of gold (99.99% gold shot, Kurt J. LeskerInc.) on SF-10 glass slides (18 mm×18 mm, Schott Glass). Human galaninreceptor subtype 1 (NEN Life Sciences) and β-adrenergic receptor subtype1 were arrayed onto a MUD SAM modified with APTES. The sample wascoupled to an SF-10 equilateral prism using index matching fluid(n=1.730, Cargille Labs) and then assembled into an SPRImager instrument(GWC Instruments). In brief, this instrument consists of a collimatedwhite light source, a bandpass interference filter (794 nm±1 nm), arotation stage, sample mount, flow cell, and an 8-bit CCD camera. TheCCD camera lens was replaced with a 6.3X microscope objective (MellesGriot). An initial image of the array was obtained in binding buffer.The array was then exposed to a solution of galanin (5 nM) in bindingbuffer, allowed to react for 60 minutes, and then washed with buffer. Afinal image of the array was taken, and a differential SPR image wasgenerated by subtracting the initial SPR image from the final SPR image.Images were analyzed using Scion Image (Scion Image for Windows is aport of the public domain image acquisition and analysis program, NIHImage, developed at the National Institutes of Health; seewww.scioncorp.com).

Results and Discussion

Two different surface chemistries were developed for the attachment ofGPCRs on gold surfaces (see FIGS. 10A and 10B). Scheme 1 (FIG. 10A)utilizes a hydroxyl-terminated SAM of 11-mercaptoundecanol (MUD) as thestarting layer that is reacted in one step with3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APTES). This reaction is analogous to thewell known reaction of chloro- and alkoxysilanes with the surfacehydroxyl groups of glass and silicon. Silane chemistry has also beenused for the modification of SAMs of alkanethiolates. For example, Itohet al. employed alkyltrichlorosilanes to modify SAMs of MUD on copper toenhance the corrosion resistance of the metal. Sun et al demonstratedthe vapor-phase reaction of dimethyloctylchlorosilane with hydroxyl andamine-terminated SAMs of thiophenol on gold. Scheme 2 (FIG. 10B) employsa starting layer of 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid (MUA). Prior to reactionwith APTES, the carboxylic acid groups of this SAM are first convertedinto reactive N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) esters using1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide (EDC) and NHS. A networkof APTES molecules is covalently anchored to the surface by amide bondformation. For the work described here, preliminary ellipsometricmeasurements indicate an APTES thickness of ˜43{acute over (Å)} and˜96{acute over (Å)} on MUD and MUA surfaces, respectively.

In a first experiment, arrays of human β-adrenergic receptor subtype 1(β1) GPCRs were printed on APTES-modified gold surfaces, incubated withfluorescently labeled CGP 12177, and then imaged using a fluorescencescanner. As seen in FIGS. 11A-11C, both chemistries produce arrays thatpossess excellent spot morphology and uniformity, and exhibit a highsignal to noise ratio. Compared to similar arrays printed on CMT-GAPSslides, these arrays on gold have ˜4x lower background fluorescence.This background fluorescence on glass and gold substrates results mainlyfrom small amounts of nonspecifically bound labeled ligands. Becausethese nonspecifically bound ligands are in very close proximity to thegold surface (<˜100 Å), fluorescence from the fluorophore is efficientlyquenched. At the same time, the fluorescence in each array location isnot quenched because the lipid membrane distances the fluorophore atleast an additional ˜50 Å from the gold surface. The fluorescencequenching properties of metals is a well-known phenomenon, and is asensitive function of the distance between the fluorophore and the metalsurface (the amount of quenching has a (1/r^3) distance dependence.) Ithas been shown that fluorescence quenching by metals is most significantfor metal-fluorophore distances <150 Å.

To demonstrate that the binding of ligands to arrays of GPCRs onmodified gold surfaces is specific, four replicate arrays of the β1adrenergic receptor were printed on the same slide. One array wasincubated with a solution containing labeled CGP 12177 (5 nM). The threeremaining arrays were incubated with a solution containing 5 nM labeledCGP 12177 and one of the following unlabeled inhibitors, each at aconcentration of 20 μM: CGP 12177, propranolol, betaxolol. For eacharray, the percent specific inhibition was calculated according to thefollowing formula:{1−(S_(inhib/S) _(ref)}×)100where S_(inhib) is the net fluorescence signal for the arraysco-incubated with labeled CGP and unlabeled ligand, and S_(ref) is thenet fluorescence signal for the reference array incubated with labeledCGP only. FIG. 12 shows the results of these experiments performed onAPTES attached to SAMs of MUA and MUD. Strong and specific inhibition ofthe binding of labeled ligand to β1 receptors on both surfaces wasobserved for all three inhibitors; slightly better inhibition levelswere obtained on MUA. Similar levels of inhibition were observed forarrays printed on CMT-GAPS slides (data not shown).

SPR Imaging was used to directly detect the specific-binding ofunlabeled galanin (3.2 kDa) to arrays of the galanin receptor printed onAPTES-modified SAMs of MUD. In this example, a 5×3 array was printedcontaining 3 rows of the galanin receptor and 2 rows of the β1adrenergic receptor. After printing, the surface was docked in the SPRimaging instrument and equilibrated with buffer. An initial SPR image ofthe surface was obtained. Thereafter, a solution of galanin was injectedand allowed to incubate with the array for 1 hour. After incubation thearray was washed by an injection of buffer. FIG. 13 shows the SPRdifference image obtained by subtracting the initial SPR image from theSPR image after the surface was exposed to the solution of galanin. Asignificant amount of binding was observed for the array locationscontaining the galanin receptor; in contrast, no binding was detected inarray locations containing the β1 adrenergic receptor.

Conclusion

We have developed surface chemistries on gold that allow forimmobilization of GPCRs in a biologically active form. The use of a goldsubstrate results in enhanced signal to background ratios compared toarrays printed on glass substrates. An additional benefit of thesesurfaces is the possibility of detecting ligand binding in adirect-assay format by label free techniques such as SPR. Although thisinvention describes the specific use of APTES for immobilization ofGPCRs on gold, it is anticipated that the chemical modification ofalkanethiols by different silanes is of general utility for theimmobilization of a variety of proteins.

Example 5

Functional Assay

Experimental

Human opioid receptor subtypes μ and δ₂ were purchased from Perkin ElmerLife Science (Boston, Mass.). The receptor associated membranes wereoriginally suspended in 10 mM Tris-HCl, 5 mM MgCl₂ and 10% sucrose,pH7.4, and used directly for printing without further treatment.

Ten separate grids of μ and δ2 receptors were printed on a single APTESsilanized SAM of 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid on a gold slide using aquill pin printer (Model PS 5000, Cartesian Technologies Inc.). Eachcolumn in a grid contained five replicates of a single receptor. Onehour after printing, each grid was incubated with a different solutionthat contained varying concentrations of dynorphin A (Sigma ChemicalCo., St. Louis, Mo.). These incubations were performed in a buffercontaining 50 mM Tris-HCl, 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.1% BSA, pH 7.4, 3 μM GDP, 100mM NaCl, 25 nM BODIPY-FL-GTPγS (Molecular Probes). After incubation for90 minutes the slides were rinsed, dried and imaged in the FITC channelof a aScanArray 5000 scanner (Packard Instruments).

Results and Discussion

Arrays of the GPCR μ and δ₂-opiod receptors were incubated withsolutions containing a fixed (25 nM) concentration of BODIPY-fluoresceinlabeled GTPγS in the presence and absence of the ligand dynorphin A.FIGS. 14A, 14B and 14C show the results of this experiment. The arraysincubated in the presence of dynorphin A show significantly higherfluorescence. Specifically, the increase in basal level fluorescence was˜2.5 fold for the μ receptor (see FIG. 14B), and ˜10 fold for the δ2receptor (see FIG. 14C). This result suggests that (i) dynorphin Apromotes the binding of GTPγS to the Gα proteins present in the cellmembrane preps; and (ii) the GPCRs in the array are functional.

Example 6

Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Microarrays on SAMs of Amino-terminatedAlkanthiolates on Gold

Experimental

Human epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was purchased from PerkinElmer Life Science (Boston, Mass.). The receptor membrane preps werefrom human A431 cells (epithelial tumor cells) that express the EGFR in˜100-fold excess compared to normal epithelial cells. The receptorassociated membranes were originally suspended in 50 mM HEPES-KOH, 138mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, and 10% sucrose, pH 7.7, and were used directly forprinting without further treatment. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) andtetramethylrhodamine labeled epidermal growth factor (TM-EGF) werepurchased from Molecular Probes (Eugene, Oreg.). The EGF and TM-EGF werereconstituted in distilled water containing 2 mM sodium azide, anddivided into single-use aliquots for longer term storage at −80° C.

Fourteen separate grids of the epidermal growth factor receptor wereprinted on a single gold slide modified with a SAM of11-mercaptoundecylamine using a quill pin printer (Model PS 5000,Cartesian Technologies Inc.). Each grid contained 2×3 replicates of thereceptor. After printing and incubation in a humid chamber for 1 hour,each grid was incubated with a different solution that contained varyingconcentrations of TMR-EGF in the absence and presence of EGF. Theseincubations were performed in a buffer containing 50 mM HEPES-NaOH, 138mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, 0.2% BSA, pH 7.7. After incubation for 60 minutes theslides were rinsed, dried and imaged in the Cy3 channel of a GenePixscanner.

Results and Discussion

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a 170 kDa membrane-boundglycoprotein and receptor protein tyrosine kinase expressed on thesurface of epithelial cells. EGFR is a member of the growth factorreceptor family of protein tyrosine kinases, a class of cell cycleregulatory molecules. The receptor undergoes dimerization,conformational changes, and internalization when its ligand (EGF, TGF-α)binds to the extracellular domain. EGF is a 53-amino acid polypeptidehormone that stimulates division of epidermal and other cells.

Arrays of the EGF receptor were incubated with solutions containing anincreasing concentration of TMR-EGF in the absence (FIG. 16A) andpresence (FIG. 16B) of EGF (500 nM). FIG. 16C shows plots of the averagefluorescence intensity of these EGFR arrays as a function of theconcentration of TMR-EGF in the absence (diamonds) and presence(squares) of EGF. The amount of signal observed in the presence of 500mM EGF is small, indicating that the non-specific binding of TMR-EGF isquite low. The specific binding of TMR-EGF to the array exhibits atypical saturation curve response, as shown in FIG. 16D. These resultssuggest that (i) the binding of TMR-EGF to EGFRs in the arrays isspecific with high affinity; and (ii) the EGFRs in the array arefunctional.

While the invention has been described in connection with specificembodiments, it will be understood that it is capable of furthermodifications. Therefore, this application is intended to cover anyvariations, uses, or adaptations of the invention that follow, ingeneral, the principles of the invention, including departures from thepresent disclosure that come within known or customary practice withinthe art.

Other embodiments are within the claims.

The references cited throughout the specification including those setforth below are incorporated herein by reference.

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It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that variousmodifications and variations can be made to the present inventionwithout departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Thus, itis intended that the present invention cover the modifications andvariations of this invention provided they come within the scope of theappended claims and their equivalents.

1. A method for detecting a binding event between a probe and targetcompound, said method comprising: contacting a solution comprising thetarget compound with an air-dried array of immobilized probe biologicalmembrane microspots, at least one of the biological membrane microspotscomprising at least one G-protein coupled receptor, wherein the membranemicrospots are directly and noncovalently associated with aγ-aminopropyl-silane layer disposed directly on a surface of a glasssubstrate, such that the microspots remain adsorbed on said layer andretain biological function when drawn through an air-water interface,the target compound having one or more constituents; and detecting abinding event between at least one or more of the probes and one or moreof the constituents of the target.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein atleast one of the constituents of the target is labeled and the detectionstep comprises detecting the presence of the label.
 3. The method ofclaim 2, wherein the detection of the label is carried out by imagingbased on the radioactivity, fluorescence, phosphorescence,chemiluminescence, or resonance light scattering emanating from thebound target.
 4. The method of claim 2, further comprising washing thesubstrate of unbound target prior to the detection step.
 5. The methodof claim 1, wherein the solution comprises labeled cognate target and anunlabeled target compound, comprising incubating the array of microspotswith the labeled cognate target and the unlabeled target compound, andthe binding event between the unlabeled target compound and the probe isdetermined by measuring a decrease in the signal of the label due tocompetition between the cognate labeled target and the unlabeled targetcompound for the probe.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the labeledcognate target is incubated with the array before incubation with theunlabeled target.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the target isunlabeled and the binding event is determined by a change in physicalproperties at an interface of the probe and the target.
 8. The method ofclaim 7, wherein the change in physical properties at the interface is achange in refractive index or electrical impedence.
 9. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the target is unlabeled and the binding of the targetis detected by mass spectroscopy.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein theprobe biological membrane microspots comprise an ion channel.
 11. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the target is unlabeled and the binding ofthe target is detected by measuring levels of labeled nonhydrolyzableGTP.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the nonhydrolyzable GTP isGTPγS.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the GTPγS is labeled with aradioactive isotope or a fluorescent compound.
 14. The method of claim13, wherein the GTPγS is [₃₅s] GTPγS or fluorophore labeled GTPγS. 15.The method of claim 1, wherein the probe biological membrane microspotsfurther comprise at least one receptor tyrosine kinase.
 16. The methodof claim 1, wherein the substrate is configured as a chip, a slide or amicroplate.
 17. The method of claim 1, the material conferring a contactangle ranging from about 15° to 80°.
 18. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising drying the contacted array prior to the detecting step.